KIT oncogenetic activation is the dominant pathogenetic mechanism in GIST (77). Although familial GIST with germline mutations have been reported (52,55), the majority of KIT mutations in GIST are

somatic. The most common mutations in KIT are found in the juxtamembrane domain that is encoded by the 5′ end of exon 11 of the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical KIT receptor (Figure 1). Mutations in exon 11 change the normal juxtamembrane secondary structure and cause the active conformation of the normal kinase activation loop (78). The mutations vary from in-frame deletions of variable sizes, point mutations to deletions preceded by substitutions Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (79). The deletions are associated with a more aggressive behavior in comparison to other exon 11 mutations (80-83). Particularly, deletions involving codon 557 and/or codon 558 are associated with malignant behavior (84,85).

A less common mutant spot is located at the 3′ end of exon 11, which includes mainly internal tandem duplications mutations (ITDs) (86). These ITD-type mutations are considered to have a more indolent clinical course and a predilection Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in GISTs located in the stomach (86). The second most common KIT mutation, between 10% and 15% of GISTs, is a mutation in an extracellular domain encoded by exon 9 (87). GISTs with KIT exon 9 mutations are characterized by small bowel location and aggressive clinical behavior (86). Figure 1 Schematic distribution of KIT or PDGFRA receptor mutations, frequency of mutations and TKI (Abbreviations: Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Ex, Exon; S, sensitive; R, resistant) A minority of GISTs that lack KIT gene mutations have high levels of phosphorylation of PDGFRA resulted from an activation by mutations or small deletions (28). PDGFRA is a close homologue Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of KIT (28). Mutations in PDGFRA and KIT in GIST are mutually exclusive and about one-third of GISTs without KIT mutations harbor a mutation of PDGFRA, within exons 12, 14 or 18 (28,88,89). In GIST, mutant forms of PDGFRA have constitutive

kinase activity in the absence of their ligand-PDGFRA similar to those for KIT mutations, and the activated downstream Carfilzomib pathways (28,29) are identical to those in KIT-mutant GISTs (28,90). In spite of the similarities in molecular aspect, most GISTs with mutated PDGFRA have distinct pathologic features, including gastric location, epithelioid morphology, variable/absent CD117 by immunohistochemistry and an indolent clinical course (88,91,92). Recent studies indicate that a small portion of GIST wild-type for both KIT and PDGFRA genes may harbor mutations of the BRAF gene (93) and KRAS and BRAF mutations predict selleckchem primary resistance to imatinib in GISTs (94).