In addition DNA sequences of polymorphic loci produced in one study can easily be compared with those in another study, and as the loci are supposedly neutral, Protein Tyrosine Kinase inhibitor it allows hypothesis-based coalescent analysis. Our PCR primers for the

described loci can be used to identify various A. apis strains with differences in virulence and for a broader study of the population genetic structure of this worldwide honey bee pathogen. Variation in virulence among chalkbrood strains and variation in susceptibility between honey bee colonies have recently been shown (Jensen et al., 2009b; Vojvodic et al., 2011), which is the backbone for a host–pathogen arms race because of opposing selection pressures. Enhanced infection rates favor pathogens, while increased resistance favors hosts. One hypothesis suggests that multiple mating of honey bees, which results in low nest mate relatedness, is driven by pathogen pressures over an evolutionary timeframe (Tarpy & Seeley, 2006; Seeley & Tarpy, 2007). Ascosphaera apis may counteract honey bee diversity by maintenance of a high genetic variation as suggested by the variation documented in this study. We thank Danish beekeepers for providing chalkbrood infected

mummies, and Louise Lee Munk Larsen for technical support. We also wish to thank Maria Alejandra Palacio for help with the honey bee introduction Obeticholic Acid history of Latin America. This study was supported by the Danish National Research Foundation and The Danish Council for Strategic Research. “
“It has long been speculated that erm and ksgA are related evolutionarily due to their sequence similarity and analogous catalytic reactions. We performed a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis with extensive Erm and KsgA/Dim1 sequences (Dim1 is the eukaryotic ortholog of KsgA). The tree provides insights into the evolutionary

history of erm genes, showing early bifurcation of the Firmicutes and the Actinobacteria, and suggesting that the origin of the current erm genes in pathogenic bacteria cannot be explained by Sitaxentan recent horizontal gene transfer from antibiotic producers. On the other hand, the phylogenetic analysis cannot support the commonly assumed phylogenetic relationships between erm and ksgA genes, the common ancestry of erm and ksgA or erm descended from preexisting ksgA, because the tree cannot be unequivocally rooted due to insufficient signal and long-branch attraction. The phylogenetic tree indicates that the erm gene underwent frequent horizontal gene transfer and duplication, resulting in phylogenetic anomalies and atypical phenotypes. Several electronically annotated Erm sequences were recognized as candidates for new classes of macrolide–lincosamide–streptogramin B-resistance determinants, sharing less than an 80% amino acid sequence identity with other Erm classes.