This work was supported by NIH grants selleck kinase inhibitor GM085770 to B.S.M. and GM08283 and AI095125 to P.C.D. “
“This is the first report of a functional toxin–antitoxin (TA) locus in Piscirickettsia salmonis. The P. salmonis TA operon (ps-Tox-Antox) is an autonomous genetic unit containing two genes, a regulatory promoter site and an overlapping putative operator region. The ORFs consist of a toxic ps-Tox gene (P. salmonis toxin) and its upstream partner ps-Antox (P. salmonis antitoxin). The regulatory

promoter site contains two inverted repeat motifs between the −10 and −35 regions, which may represent an overlapping operator site, known to mediate transcriptional auto-repression in most TA complexes. The Ps-Tox protein contains

a PIN domain, normally found in prokaryote TA operons, especially those of the VapBC and ChpK families. The expression in Escherichia coli of the ps-Tox gene results in growth inhibition of the bacterial host confirming its toxicity, which is neutralized by coexpression of the ps-Antox gene. Additionally, ps-Tox is an endoribonuclease whose activity is inhibited by the antitoxin. The bioinformatic modelling of the two putative novel proteins from P. salmonis matches with their predicted functional activity and confirms that the active site of the Ps-Tox PIN domain is conserved. Eubacteria and archaea are known to contain numerous toxin–antitoxin (TA) loci, with many species possessing tens GDC-0980 purchase of TA cassettes that can be grouped into distinct evolutionary families (Ramage

CYTH4 et al., 2009). Initially known as plasmid addiction or poison–antidote systems (Deane & Rawlings, 2004), TAs have been consistently characterized as plasmid stabilization agents (Boyd et al., 2003; Hayes, 2003; Budde et al., 2007) in which a plasmid-encoded TA functions as a postsegregational mechanism increasing the plasmid prevalence by selectively eliminating daughter cells that did not inherit a plasmid copy at cell division (Van Melderen & Saavedra de Bast, 2009). Nevertheless, in recent years they have also been detected in chromosomes of numerous free-living bacteria (Pandey & Gerdes, 2005). In contrast to the TA loci localized in plasmids, there is no general consensus on the functions of the chromosomal TA systems. A hypothesis was suggested that at least some of these systems (e.g. Escherichia coli mazEF loci) induced programmed cell death (PCD), acting as apoptotic tools (Engelberg-Kulka et al., 2006; Prozorov & Danilenko, 2010). Several researchers have determined that chromosome-borne TA systems are activated by various extreme conditions, including antibiotics (Robertson et al., 1989; Sat et al., 2001) infective phages (Hazan & Engelberg-Kulka, 2004), thymine starvation or other DNA damage (Sat et al., 2003), high temperatures, and oxidative stress (Hazan et al., 2004).