, 2008; Amano et al., 2010). In the current issue, Meins et al. (2010) shed new light on the molecular mechanisms within these inhibitory amygdala circuits that are involved in the extinction of fear. Using a molecular genetic approach in mice, they first show that inhibitory interneurons in the CE and ITC express a serine protease inhibitor, protease-nexin 1 (PN-1), which has previously been shown to regulate NMDA receptor function (Kvajo

et al., 2004). Much weaker PN-1 expression was found in the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (BA). Given the localization of PN-1 to inhibitory neurons in click here ITC and CE, Meins and colleagues next examined fear conditioning and extinction in PN-1 knockout mice. Interestingly, PN-1 knockouts exhibited normal fear conditioning, but had marked impairments in the extinction of conditional fear. Coupled with these behavioral deficits in extinction, PN-1 knockout mice exhibited reduced Fos expression in BA, as well as a reduction in phosphorylated alpha-calcium-calmodulin protein kinase II (αCamKII) in ITC neurons after extinction training. Hence, these data reveal an important and novel role for PN-1 activity in extinction learning, and reinforce the important role for inhibitory interneurons in the amygdala in this process. It has been proposed that

NMDA receptor-dependent plasticity in the ITC is a mechanism for extinction learning (Amano et al., 2010). Insofar as this website PN-1 knockout mice exhibit impaired NMDA receptor function, the reduction of ITC c-Fos expression and αCamKII phosphorylation is consistent with this possibility. Nonetheless, recent data indicate that NMDA receptor antagonism in the CE (and presumably ITC) does not affect the acquisition of extinction in rats (Zimmerman & Maren, 2010). Baf-A1 chemical structure Further work is clearly required to understand the precise role for amygdaloid NMDA receptors and PN-1 regulation of NMDA receptor function in fear extinction. Nonetheless, the work by Meins and colleagues reveals a new player in the molecular organization of extinction

learning within inhibitory interneurons of the amygdala, a finding that yields exciting new avenues for research in this rapidly moving field. “
“In choice reaction tasks, subjects typically respond faster when the relative spatial positions of stimulus and response correspond than when they do not, even when spatial information is irrelevant to the task (e.g. in the Simon task). Cognitive models attribute the Simon effect to automatic response activation elicited by spatial information, which facilitates or competes with the controlled selection of the correct response as required by task demands. In the present study, we investigated the role of the dorsal premotor cortex (PMd) in response activation and selection during spatial conflict.