Here, using state-of-the-art HCV cell culture systems and human liver

samples, we present evidence that hepatocyte Nox1 and Nox4 are prominent sources of ROS during complete HCV replication. In agreement with a recent report that JFH1 core does not localize to the mitochondria, we did not find a significant elevation of mitochondrial ROS or ATP depletion with JFH1.3 However, it is possible that the role of mitochondria in HCV-induced oxidative stress is more pronounced with certain viral genotypes or cell types. Previously, HCV core protein was suggested to reduce the cell’s ability to up-regulate its antioxidant defenses.1 However, hepatitis C patients have elevated levels of antioxidant genes, and JFH1 increased the GSH concentration in our study (Supporting selleck inhibitor Fig. 2B)1; thus, to what extent HCV interferes with the antioxidant defense mechanisms during complete viral replication remains Selleck Maraviroc to be further examined. In this study, our objective was not only to find the

source of ROS during complete HCV replication but also to find the source of superoxide for peroxynitrite generation that we predicted would occur near the cell nucleus. In agreement with this hypothesis, nitrotyrosine and Nox activity were increased in the JFH1-transfected cell nucleus, and this increase was attenuated with siRNAs to Nox. Also, although the relative amount of nuclear Nox4 versus cytoplasmic Nox4 tended to vary from one experiment to another, Nox4 was always at least partly nuclear and colocalized with lamin A/C, particularly in the presence of HCV. Furthermore, selleck compound HCV elevated the intracellular superoxide concentration, and Huh7 cells overexpressing Nox4 showed an increased superoxide level. These data do not completely rule out the possibility that Nox4 generates superoxide indirectly through another source (or other sources) of superoxide in the cell, and the significant effect that Nox1 siRNA had on nuclear nitrotyrosine could at least in

part be due to the uncoupling of nitric oxide synthase by peroxynitrite. Nevertheless, our data strongly indicate that Nox enzymes can elevate the intracellular superoxide concentration either directly or indirectly in the cell and lead to increased generation of peroxynitrite in the hepatocyte nucleus during HCV infection. Indeed, although Nox4 has recently been suggested to generate H2O2 rather than superoxide by virtue of the chemical mechanism involving a terminal electron transfer from the one electron–carrying heme B, Nox family proteins must generate superoxide first before the formation of secondary products.6 Thus, the reported inability to detect superoxide with some Nox/Duox enzymes is likely due to rapid dismutation of superoxide to form H2O2, which under some circumstances occurs more rapidly than the reaction with the superoxide-detecting probe.