Management of a patient with an elevated troponin requires an appreciation that this patient has a worse prognosis Palbociclib price than someone with normal troponin followed by a clinical judgement about what further investigation is appropriate to this patient. A major difficulty for nephrologists is that the lack of evidence for specific cardiovascular therapies in patients undergoing dialysis100 makes it difficult to select a therapy that may offer a survival or other benefit. In addition, the elevated

troponin does not help determine the underlying pathology to target and some therapies such as revascularization with coronary artery bypass graft surgery carry a considerable mortality risk in patients undergoing dialysis.101 This is a major issue if troponin Volasertib price is used to screen asymptomatic patients. In patients with symptoms of acute coronary syndromes, the need to investigate further is more straightforward, although evidence is still lacking. High levels of BNP suggest a myocardium under stress due to chronic volume overload, a poorly functioning ventricle or both. BNP levels can be reduced by treatment with beta-blocking

drugs in patients receiving dialysis,102,103 but the use of beta-blocking drugs is yet to be tested in an adequately powered study with clinical outcomes. Treatment with losartan reduced BNP levels in one study.104 However, results of randomized studies of renin-angiotensin system antagonists conflict in dialysis patients with some studies suggesting

benefit,105,106 and others demonstrating no benefit in the primary outcome.107 Finally, one uncontrolled study used the level of BNP to guide ultrafiltration in patients undergoing dialysis Rutecarpine with volume overload,108 and demonstrated that BNP and extracellular fluid volume could be lowered. However, larger controlled studies of ‘BNP-guided therapy’ are needed to determine whether this approach can reduce clinically important end-points, bearing in mind that interventions targeting an improvement in other laboratory markers in patients undergoing dialysis have not proved beneficial in randomized controlled trials.109,110 Cardiac troponin and BNP offer promise for future clinical application in patients undergoing dialysis. Although reduced kidney function may have a role in their frequent abnormal levels, their strong associations with adverse clinical outcomes in this population and the potential pathological pathways they represent provide opportunities for treatment strategies to be guided by biomarker levels. However, much remains to be done before this promise is realized, including a better understanding of day to day variability of BNP and determining a ‘reference range’ of this marker for dialysis patients with minimal cardiac pathology.