falciparum [22], begs the question of why this immune response is not effective preventing

disease transmission under natural field conditions. It has been proposed that P. falciparum Selleck DAPT parasites have evolved specific mechanisms to modulate activation of the An. gambiae immune system as they adapted to their natural mosquito vector [23, 24]. The observation that P. falciparum strains from the New World, such as the Brazilian P. falciparum 7G8 strain, are melanized very effectively by the An. gambiae L35 strain but not those of African origin [9] adds support to the adaptation hypothesis. Recent experiments revealed that LRIM1 can also mediate immune responses against P. falciparum, because silencing this gene in An. gambiae L35 females infected with the Brazilian P. falciparum 7G8 strain completely reverts the melanization phenotype and results in live oocysts (A. Molina-Cruz, A and C. Barillas-Mury, unpublished). 3-deazaneplanocin A purchase Selection for refractoriness to P. cynomolgy resulted in a strain of An. gambiae that is also refractory to multiple Plasmodium

species. LRIM1 also mediates the antiparasitic responses of Anopheles quadriannulatus to P. berghei infection [25]. These findings indicate that some genes, such as TEP1/LRIM1, are broad mediators of antiparasitic responses against several different Plasmodium parasites in different EPZ5676 nmr mosquito strains. Under natural conditions, P. falciparum parasites must avoid or withstand the antiparasitic responses of An. gambiae to complete their life cycle and this is likely to exert selective pressure on parasite populations. For example,

in Southern Mexico, three genetically distinct P. vivax populations have been identified, and experimental infections indicate that parasites are most compatible with sympatric mosquito species [26]. The authors propose that reciprocal selection between malaria parasites and mosquito vectors has led to local adaptation Chorioepithelioma of parasites to their vectors [26]. Thus, it is likely that in well-adapted systems there is some level of immune evasion and/or suppression, and this could explain why silencing some genes involved in immunity (LRIM1, CTL4) or oxidative stress (OXR1, GSTT1 and GSTT2) in An. gambiae (G3) females, has little effect on P. falciparum (3D7 strain) infection. There is also increasing evidence from many different studies that the interaction between Plasmodium parasites and the mosquito immune system it is a strong determinant of vectorial capacity. Nevertheless, the extent to which the mosquito immune system is effectively reducing Plasmodium infection is very variable, even between particular parasite and mosquito strains. These differences in compatibility need to be evaluated and carefully considered when selecting an experimental animal model to study malaria transmission. Methods Mosquito rearing An. gambiae (G3 strain) and An.