Forty-eight hours after siRNA transfection, expression levels of STING were detected by immunoblotting. Statistical analyses were performed using unpaired, two-tailed Student t test. P < 0.05 were considered to be statistically significant.

First, we performed a reporter assay using a luciferase reporter plasmid regulated by native IFN-β promoter. Consistent with our previous study,19 overexpression of NS4B, as well as NS3/4A, inhibited the IFN-β promoter activation that was induced by ΔRIG-I and Cardif, respectively (Fig. 1A). We next studied whether NS4B targets STING and inhibits RIG-I pathway–mediated activation of IFN-β production. Expression of NS4B protein significantly suppressed STING-mediated activation of the IFN-β promoter reporter, whereas expression of NS3/4A showed no effect on STING-induced IFN-β promoter activity (Fig. 1A). Palbociclib mouse To study whether NS4B blocks the STING-mediated DNA-sensing pathway, we

performed a reporter assay using a luciferase reporter plasmid cotransfection with poly(dA:dT), which is a synthetic analog of B-DNA and has been reported to induce STING-mediated IFN-β production and NS4B. NS4B significantly blocked poly(dA:dT)-induced IFN-β promoter activation, suggesting that NS4B may block STING signaling in the DNA-sensing pathway (Fig. 1A). Activation of RIG-I signaling induces phosphorylation BGB324 cost of IRF-3, which is a hallmark of IRF-3 activation.32 Thus, we examined the effects of NS3/4A and NS4B expression on phosphorylation of IRF-3 by immunoblotting analysis. As shown in Fig. 1B, overexpression of ΔRIG-I, Cardif, or STING in HEK293T cells increased levels of phosphorylated IRF-3 (pIRF-3). Expression MCE of NS4B impaired the IRF-3 phosphorylation that was induced by ΔRIG-I, Cardif, or STING. NS3/4A also blocked production of pIRF-3 induced by ΔRIG-I or Cardif. Intriguingly, NS3/4A did not block STING-induced pIRF-3 production. These results demonstrate that both NS3/4A and NS4B suppress RIG-I–mediated IFN-β production, but they do so by targeting different molecules in the signaling pathway. We next studied the subcellular

localization of NS4B following its overexpression and measured the colocalization of NS4B with Cardif and STING in both HEK293T cells and Huh7 cells by indirect immunofluorescence microscopy. NS4B was localized predominantly in the ER, which is consistent with previous reports33 (Fig. 2A). Cardif was localized in mitochondria but did not colocalize with the ER-resident host protein disulphide-isomerase (PDI). Interestingly, Cardif and NS4B colocalized partly at the boundary of the two proteins, although their original localization was different (Fig. 2A,C). STING was localized predominantly in the ER20, 21 (Fig. 2B,D). STING colocalized partly with Cardif, which is consistent with a previous report by Ishikawa and Barber20 (Fig. 2B,D).