In fact, there has never been a more opportune time for research aimed at uncovering biomarkers PF01367338 in T1D: an ever-growing number of clinical studies of new-onset type 1 diabetes should provide unprecedented access to potentially large numbers of clinical specimens. Relevant clinical laboratory assay developments, along with recent developments in high-throughput technologies, now provide the means to assay large numbers of specimens rapidly and affordably. One challenge facing biomarker studies, however, is the lack of defined standards, not only among laboratory protocols for the various assays but also in handling and

preparation Liproxstatin-1 nmr of clinical specimens, which can have considerable influence on assay results [23]. Another challenge is our lack of knowledge as to how much

individual T cell responses fluctuate over time in a given individual – subjects are usually tested only a few times per year, but effector T cell and regulatory T cell (Treg) activities might change multiple times during this period. Indeed, a recent study published by Diabetes TrialNet’s Mechanistic Outcomes Committee showed that, while assays measuring overall T cell reactivity against islet autoantigens could distinguish between patients with T1D and healthy controls relatively reliably, those assays that measured individual epitope-specific responses detected variable responses over time [24]. The last challenge is that, as yet, we have no solid data that indicate how T cell responses would be expected to change in a beneficial way in one individual following re-establishment of tolerance to β cells. Animal models tell us what to expect, but do not always correspond to the human case [25]. Thus, precise tracking during clinical interventions is required to develop reliable correlations between T cell responses and clinical outcomes. The potential benefits of biomarkers of tolerance in T1D are many [26]. They could speed

clinical assessments by providing surrogate end-points, permit more robust analysis of trial data through CYTH4 stratification of patients and facilitate personalized medicine by informing treatment decisions. Such benefits argue strongly for the creation of a coordinated biomarker discovery effort that, by establishing common procedures across all new-onset trials, permits comparison of data obtained in trials of varying agents and ultimately the identification of robust immunological markers of disease state and immune tolerance. The ITN has been working actively to advance such a goal for the past decade by integrating a biomarker discovery programme into each of its clinical trials.