Integrin α4β7 and CCR9 expression is induced in naive lymph cells by retinoic acid (RA), produced by intestinal dendritic cells (DCs) or by stromal cells in MLN [8,9]. The regulatory phenotype of naive T cells is also induced by transforming

growth factor (TGF)-β, a cytokine produced by DCs, mainly by the CD103+αvβ8+ subset of DCs. TGF-β promotes the peripheral Veliparib chemical structure expression of forkhead box protein 3 (FoxP3) in naive T cells, thus becoming induced Treg (iTreg) [10]. DCs from MLN are instructed to promote the regulatory phenotype in the encountered naive T cells at the time of antigen uptake in the intestinal mucosa. There are two major cell populations with functions in antigen sampling and processing, in LP: CX3CR1+ mononuclear phagocytes (CX3C chemokine receptor 1 is also known as the fractalkine receptor) and CD103+ (αE integrin) DCs [11]. Although CX3CR1+ phagocytes have several features specific for DCs, there is no evidence for their entry into lymphatics and migration to MLN [12] and, thereupon, for their involvement in Treg induction. Furthermore, it appears that CX3CR1+ cells actually participate in priming T helper type 17 (Th17) inflammatory responses [13] to certain bacterial components, sampled directly from the intestinal lumen [14]. CD103+ DCs thus remain the most important candidates for the development

of Tregs in MLN, after antigen sampling and migration from LP. Their activity relies on the production of RA and TGF-β. RA synthesis is catalyzed by retinaldehyde dehydrogenase type (RALDH), an enzyme which is not expressed selleck chemicals llc by CD103+ DCs at the time of their arrival in LP [15]. This leads us to the conclusion that DCs evolve towards a regulatory phenotype after entering the intestinal mucosa. The microenvironment in LP is thus responsible see more for initiating the chain of events that polarize DCs and, respectively, the phenotype of T cells educated by DCs. Given the importance of the gut environment in the polarization of immune cells, one would expect enterocytes to contribute significantly in shaping this microenvironment. In this study we

will present the mechanisms orchestrated by enterocytes, together with DCs, in the development of this nursery for tolerant T cells. The digestion of luminal nutrients participates significantly in the degradation of epitopes which could give rise to unwanted immune responses. Digestion processes take place mainly in the small intestine – chemical digestion is completed here before the chyme reaches the large intestine, which produces no digestive enzymes. The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients are absorbed, whereas electrolytes such as sodium, magnesium and chloride, and vitamins such as vitamin K, are internalized in the colon. However, digestive processes cannot lyse all food proteins to the amino acid level.