They also extend the view of cirrhosis as a disease in which immunomediated selleck kinase inhibitor mechanisms, which change from the compensated (pre-ascitic) to the decompensated (ascitic) stage, play a key pathogenetic role. Expansion of activated immune cells in the peripheral circulation and a rise in proinflammatory cytokines occurs in experimental compensated cirrhosis. However, unlike in cirrhosis with ascites, the predominant activation site of recirculating immune cells seems to be the draining lymph nodes of the liver and not the MLNs. The molecular and cellular
mechanisms underlying this newly discovered immunological effect of the liver with cirrhosis remain to be elucidated. The authors thank Ana Burton for her assistance with the English translation. Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article. “
“Alpha-Galactosylceramide (α-Galcer), a specific agonist for invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells, is being evaluated in clinical trials for the treatment of viral hepatitis and liver cancer. However, the results from α-Galcer treatment are mixed, partially because of the variety of cytokines produced by activated iNKT cells that have an unknown synergistic effect
on the progression of liver disease. It is well documented that PLX4032 solubility dmso injection of α-Galcer induces mild hepatitis with a rapid elevation in the levels of interleukin (IL)−4 and a delayed elevation in the levels of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and both of these cytokines are thought to mediate many functions of iNKT cells. Surprisingly, genetic deletion of both IL-4 and IFN-γ aggravated, rather than abolished, α-Galcer-induced iNKT
hepatitis. Moreover, genetic ablation of IL-4, the IL-4 receptor, or its downstream signaling molecule signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)6 ameliorated α-Galcer-induced neutrophil infiltration, liver injury, and hepatitis. In contrast, genetic deletion of IFN-γ, the IFN-γ receptor, or its downstream signaling molecule STAT1 enhanced liver neutrophil accumulation, thereby exacerbating liver injury and hepatitis. Moreover, depletion of neutrophils Progesterone eradicated α-Galcer-induced liver injury in wild-type, STAT1 knockout, and IFN-γ knockout mice. Conclusion: Our results propose a model in which activated iNKT cells rapidly release IL-4, which promotes neutrophil survival and hepatitis but also sequentially produce IFN-γ, which acts in a negative feedback loop to ameliorate iNKT hepatitis by inducing neutrophil apoptosis. Thus, modification of iNKT production of IL-4 and IFN-γ may have the potential to improve the efficacy of α-Galcer in the treatment of liver disease.