In this respect, the ASC-probe technique offers two main advantages to the use of

serum antibodies. The first is its ability to recognize antigens that have low immunogenicity or are only transiently exposed to the immune system, which is likely to be the case for surface or secreted antigens from migrating schistosomula. By analysing the local antibody response, it may be possible to identify antigens that are not seen when using serum as a probe, as in the previously referred studies with H. contortus, A. suum and F. hepatica. The second main advantage of lymph node-derived ASC probes is the capacity to focus on particular tissue compartments in isolation from more immunologically dominant infection https://www.selleckchem.com/products/Gefitinib.html sites. Eberl et al. (78) showed that YAP-TEAD Inhibitor 1 concentration even a fairly significant number (2000) of schistosome cercariae used to infect chimpanzees provides a low antigenic stimulus in serum and that the major cause of antibody production in schistosomiasis was egg deposition in the liver and intestine. Therefore, to be able to focus on the antibody response caused by schistosomula alone, in

isolation from that caused by the egg deposition (and even the potentially irrelevant adult response), would be a significant advantage. Despite the value of this technique, it has not been applied hitherto to any of the important human helminthiases, including schistosomiasis; however, preliminary studies we have undertaken suggest that it can be used to great effect for novel, stage-specific antigen discovery and for studying the natural or protective immune response (79; McWilliam H.E.G.,

Piedrafita D., Driguez P., McManus D.P. and Meeusen E.N.T., unpublished data). Once the desired next tissue-specific ASC probes are obtained, there are various techniques available to identify their target molecules, including one- and two-dimensional Western blotting and screening of recombinant expression libraries. A promising new approach, however, is to make use of both protein or carbohydrate arrays that are becoming increasingly available and provide promising new tools to study the immunome. These applications are further elaborated in the following sections. The publication of the schistosome genomes (57,63), along with the wealth of new proteomic and transcriptomic data available (58,59,61), has opened the door to novel protein discovery. These information-rich biological datasets, when combined with high-throughput experimental methods, can revolutionize vaccine and diagnostics research. For example, we have developed an immunomics protein microarray for vaccine antigen discovery for S. japonicum and S. mansoni (80).