Several ongoing randomized, controlled trials will provide further information on the impact of HSV suppressive therapy on the acquisition and transmission of HIV as well as the temporality of HSV-2/HIV co-infection. Although in India HIV prevention interventions have been concentrated on high-risk groups and their immediate contacts [19], the findings of the present study suggest that seronegative individuals in long-term discordant relationships are at high risk of infection as a result of continued sexual exposure. The proportion of infections occurring in married couples is likely to increase as the epidemic matures and spreads beyond conventional ‘core groups’. As HAART has increasingly

become accessible across LDK378 order the developing world, the relationship between ART and sexual risk-taking behaviours has become more important. As ART significantly

reduces a patient’s viral load and leads to improvements in physical health and quality of life, studies from the developed world have suggested that ART-experienced individuals may be more likely to resume sexual activity, including see more unsafe sex, as a result of ‘treatment optimism’ [1,5,37]. However, ART also reduces the infectiousness of individuals who receive therapy, which could prevent new infections and have important ramifications on the future course of the HIV epidemic [38]. In the current study, patients who were in seroconverting relationships were less likely to be receiving ART. Studies from different African settings have indicated that access to ART is associated with a lower likelihood of risky sexual behaviours in comparison to patients who do not have access to ART [30,39,40]; a study from Uganda reported that ART-experienced patients were more likely to report consistent condom use, receive treatment for STIs and disclose their HIV status to their spouses [40]. Although a recent population-level else study from South Africa found that the impact

of HAART in reducing the sexual transmission of HIV would be small under current WHO guidelines in which many patients may have CD4 cell counts above the 200 cells/μL cut-off to initiate therapy but have high HIV RNA plasma load [41]. The current understanding of the role of ART in the sexual transmission of HIV in serodiscordant couples will be improved through the randomized controlled HIV Prevention Trials Network (HPTN) 052 of the National Institutes of Health [42]. This interventional study will help explain how ART can make HIV-infected individuals less infectious. Close to one-third of patients (index cases) who transmitted HIV to their spouse between 6 and 12 months of care consumed alcohol on a regular basis, which was higher than patients in persistently discordant relationships. Alcohol use can lead to increased sexual risk-taking behaviour and decreased condom use [43].

, 1963). It consists of two domains; a hydroxylase N-terminal domain with one molecule of noncovalently bound PQQ and Ca2+ at its active site as cofactors and a cytochrome c C-terminal binding domain with one covalently bound molecule of c-type haem which acts as an electron acceptor following lupanine dehydration (Hopper et al., 2002). Periplasmic targeting of the recombinant LH enzyme in Escherichia coli requires the co-expression of cytochrome c maturation factors and complex post-translational modifications that include signal peptide processing, covalent haem attachment to the C-terminal cytochrome c domain and putative disulphide bond formation

Anti-diabetic Compound Library (Stampolidis et al., 2009). Sequence analysis

with Clustal W (Larkin et al., 2007) reveals many common features of LH to members of the quinohaemoprotein family such as methanol dehydrogenase from Methylobacterium extorquens and particularly, ethanol dehydrogenase (EDH) from Comamonas testosteroni (Fig. 1). Some of the highly conserved residues among quinohaemoproteins involved in PQQ binding and at the active site of the enzyme are present selleck inhibitor in LH as is the invariant amino acid, Trp, which forms the floor of the active site cavity (Anthony, 1996; Hopper & Kaderbhai, 2003). In quinohaemoproteins, PQQ is usually sandwiched between a disulphide bond formed by two neighbouring Cys (Chen et al., 2002), for example, in methanol dehydrogenase 103,104Cys (Afolabi et al., 2001) and ethanol dehydrogenase 116,117Cys (Mennenga et al., 2009). The role of this bond is still a mystery. One hypothesis is that the disulphide bridge could potentially serve as an intraprotein redox centre, acting as a functional switch by relaying electrons from PQQ to the terminal acceptor in a similar manner to ferredoxin:thioredoxin reductase (Dai et al., 2000), glutathione reductase and lipoamide

dehydrogenase (White et al., 1993). A second theory claims that the bond could have a structural role for proper positioning of PQQ within the active site of the enzyme (Oubrie et al., 2002). However, LH possesses, in total, four Cys residues, two are part of the cytochrome c motif (586Cys and 589Cys), and the remaining two are separated by else 18 amino acids (124Cys and 143Cys). In this study, we attempted to establish the presence of the disulphide bond using chemical means and role in recombinant LH using site-directed mutagenesis with 143CysSer and 124,143CysSer mutations in E. coli. All chemicals were purchased from Sigma, Qiagen Ni-NTA agarose from Qiagen, and electrophoresis reagents were obtained from Bio-Rad and BDH (UK). Restriction enzymes and DNA-modifying enzymes were purchased from New England Biolabs and Promega (UK). Escherichia coli TB1 and pINK-LH-His4 construct were from Dr M. A. Kaderbhai Laboratory.

The frequency of transient desaturations emphasises the importance of adequate monitoring during sedation. The study highlights the need for more consistent reporting of adverse effects.

The authors declare no conflict of RG7204 ic50 interest. “
“International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry 2012; 22: 406–418 Background.  As a result of numerous rapid and exciting developments in tissue engineering technology, scientists are able to regenerate a fully functional tooth in animal models, from a bioengineered tooth germ. Advances in technology, together with our understanding of the mechanisms of tooth development and studies dealing with dentally derived stem cells, have led to significant progress in the field of tooth regeneration. Aim and design.  This review focuses on some of the recent advances in tooth bioengineering technology, the signalling pathways in tooth development, and in dental stem cell biology. These factors are highlighted in respect of http://www.selleckchem.com/products/dinaciclib-sch727965.html our current knowledge of tooth regeneration. Results and conclusion.  An understanding of these new approaches in tooth regeneration should help to prepare clinicians to use this new and somewhat revolutionary therapy while also enabling them to partake in future clinical trials. Tooth bioengineering promises to be at the forefront of the next generation of dental treatments.

“
“Oral health literacy is a newly emerging field with considerable research potential. To validate an original instrument, the Hong Kong Oral Health Phospholipase D1 Literacy Assessment Task (HKOHLAT-P) for paediatric dentistry. A convenient

sample of 200 child/parent dyads attending a dental hospital in Hong Kong was selected. Convergent validity was tested by examining the association of HKOHLAT-P scores with those derived from the Test of Functional Health Literacy in Dentistry (TOFHLiD) and Hong Kong Rapid Estimate of Adult Literacy in Dentistry (HKREALD-30). The predictive validity of HKOHLAT-P was determined by testing the association between HKOHLAT-P and children’s caries experience (dmft) and the Chinese Early Childhood Oral Health Impact Scale (ECOHIS). The test-retest reliability and internal consistency of HKOHLAT-P were also evaluated. HKOHLAT-P was positively correlated with TOFHLiD and HKREALD-30 (P < 0.01), and was negatively correlated with children's dmft and ECOHIS. In the regression model, HKOHLAT-P was associated with TOFHLiD, HKEALD-30, children's dmft, and ECOHIS (P < 0.05) after controlling for participants' demographic characteristics. The intra-class correlation coefficient of HKOHLAT-P was 0.63 and the Cronbach's α was 0.71. Initial testing of HKOHLAT-P suggested that it is a valid and reliable instrument. "
“International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry 2012; 22: 310–316 Background.  Generalized aggressive periodontitis (GAP) in primary teeth is a rare periodontal disease that occurs during or soon after eruption of the primary teeth. An association with systemic diseases is a possibility. Case Report.

The frequency of transient desaturations emphasises the importance of adequate monitoring during sedation. The study highlights the need for more consistent reporting of adverse effects.

The authors declare no conflict of SD-208 datasheet interest. “
“International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry 2012; 22: 406–418 Background.  As a result of numerous rapid and exciting developments in tissue engineering technology, scientists are able to regenerate a fully functional tooth in animal models, from a bioengineered tooth germ. Advances in technology, together with our understanding of the mechanisms of tooth development and studies dealing with dentally derived stem cells, have led to significant progress in the field of tooth regeneration. Aim and design.  This review focuses on some of the recent advances in tooth bioengineering technology, the signalling pathways in tooth development, and in dental stem cell biology. These factors are highlighted in respect of Selleck Adriamycin our current knowledge of tooth regeneration. Results and conclusion.  An understanding of these new approaches in tooth regeneration should help to prepare clinicians to use this new and somewhat revolutionary therapy while also enabling them to partake in future clinical trials. Tooth bioengineering promises to be at the forefront of the next generation of dental treatments.

“
“Oral health literacy is a newly emerging field with considerable research potential. To validate an original instrument, the Hong Kong Oral Health Sclareol Literacy Assessment Task (HKOHLAT-P) for paediatric dentistry. A convenient

sample of 200 child/parent dyads attending a dental hospital in Hong Kong was selected. Convergent validity was tested by examining the association of HKOHLAT-P scores with those derived from the Test of Functional Health Literacy in Dentistry (TOFHLiD) and Hong Kong Rapid Estimate of Adult Literacy in Dentistry (HKREALD-30). The predictive validity of HKOHLAT-P was determined by testing the association between HKOHLAT-P and children’s caries experience (dmft) and the Chinese Early Childhood Oral Health Impact Scale (ECOHIS). The test-retest reliability and internal consistency of HKOHLAT-P were also evaluated. HKOHLAT-P was positively correlated with TOFHLiD and HKREALD-30 (P < 0.01), and was negatively correlated with children's dmft and ECOHIS. In the regression model, HKOHLAT-P was associated with TOFHLiD, HKEALD-30, children's dmft, and ECOHIS (P < 0.05) after controlling for participants' demographic characteristics. The intra-class correlation coefficient of HKOHLAT-P was 0.63 and the Cronbach's α was 0.71. Initial testing of HKOHLAT-P suggested that it is a valid and reliable instrument. "
“International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry 2012; 22: 310–316 Background.  Generalized aggressive periodontitis (GAP) in primary teeth is a rare periodontal disease that occurs during or soon after eruption of the primary teeth. An association with systemic diseases is a possibility. Case Report.

However, further research is required to determine whether it would feasible to introduce such a programme with a larger cohort of patients. While this intervention was a useful tool for pharmacists to monitor their patients remotely, improvements could be made to the technology used. 1. European Centre for Connected Health. Developing a Connected Health and Care Strategy for Northern Ireland Health and Social Care Services.

2008. Available from http://www.eu-cch.org/connected-health-strategy-2 (Accessed 11/04/2013) 2. Horne R, Weinman J. Self-regulation and Self-management in Asthma: Exploring The Role of Illness Perceptions and Treatment Beliefs in Explaining Non-adherence to Preventer Medication. Psychol Health 2002; 17: 17–32 Peter Rivers, Jon Waterfield, Aalam Bal, Mary

T Faux, Sunita Pall, Emma Smith De Montfort University, Trichostatin A supplier Leicester, UK The aim of the project was to gauge the level of support by pharmacists for monitoring antipsychotics The small minority who responded were very enthusiastic about this initiative Further work is required to establish how best to gain ‘buy-in’ of pharmacists on the subject of dementia and antipsychotics One in three people over the age of 65 years ends their lives with dementia and many are treated inappropriately with antipsychotics resulting in unwanted side-effects or life-threatening morbidity1. Since this is a health issue caused exclusively by medicines, the question arises as to what pharmacists should do to prevent the inappropriate use of these medicines. Four final year MPharm students, therefore, organised a Local Pharmacy Forum (LPF) event LGK974 designed to gauge the extent of support for monitoring antipsychotics. A self-completion Dynein questionnaire was devised to gauge the extent of support for this initiative and was posted and e-mailed to all members of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society (RPS) registered with a given LPF. On 16th January, 2013, the event took place, attended by 32 pharmacists. Delegates completed a pre-event questionnaire seeking views on

pharmaceutical care, focusing on the use of antipsychotics. Ten in-depth interviews were conducted to establish more detailed insights regarding the potential for pharmacists to monitor antipsychotics. A total of 160 (14%) responses were received out of a membership of 1,115 and 156 (98%) supported the principle of giving a personal commitment to monitor antipsychotics. Views expressed by the event delegates are shown in Table 1. Table 1: Delegates’ views on recording ‘pharmaceutical care’ data Statement relating to pharmaceutical care Str. Agree / Agree n (%) Uncertain/Disagree n (%) No response n (%) Total n (%)* *error in percent due to rounding Suggestions arising from the in-depth interviews included: 1. Finding practical solutions within funding system, 2. Working with other health care professionals (GPs, psychiatrists at multidisciplinary event), 3. Recording simple data to build picture, 4.

Of note, the audit did not account for observer bias from patients completing the questionnaires as part of Hawthorne Effect. Results show a clear inclination towards self-medicating, however majority of patients were frustrated at being unable to freely access their Insulin prior to meals, and being dependent on scheduled

medication ward rounds before receiving their Insulin dose. There is debate as to whether delayed insulin administration has an adverse effect on a patient’s health. All health-professionals that prescribe, handle or administer insulin must now complete a mandatory NHS Diabetes E-learning module on the safe use of Insulin. Further research would be required to prove its effectiveness and positive impact on patient outcomes. 1. Lamont T, Cousins D, Hillson R, Bischler A, Terblanche Natural Product Library cell assay M. Safer Administration of insulin: summary of a safety report

form the find more National Patient Safety Agency.?TBMJ 2010;341:c5269 M. Boyda, D. Jonesa, K. Solankia, S. Rakhejaa, C. Tonga, G. Tomlinsonb, K. O’Kellyc, R. Abeyratnec, T. Masudc aDivision for Social Research in Medicines and Health, The School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK, bClinical Quality, Risk & Safety Team, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, UK, cHealth Care of Older Persons Directorate, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, UK The STOPP/START criteria are a useful tool in identifying inappropriate prescribing or prescribing omissions in patients over 65. Retrospective analysis of patient notes was used to identify STOPP/START violations in patients Protirelin discharged from the Health Care of Older Persons (HCOP) directorate. Secondary care clinicians reduce inappropriate prescribing between admission and discharge.

Prescribing in older patients is challenging due to factors such as multiple morbidities, polypharmacy and changes in pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profiles. Inappropriate prescribing can result in adverse drug reactions, unnecessary hospital admissions and poor outcomes for patients. In 2008, Gallagher et al. published two tools to assist prescribing for older patients: Screening Tool of Older Persons’; Prescriptions (STOPP) and Screening Tool to Alert to Right Treatment (START).1 These tools comprised 65 indicators to identify potentially inappropriate prescriptions and 22 prescribing indicators for potential prescribing omissions respectively. In a previous audit in the same hospital trust conducted in April-August 2012, 105 patients were audited and it was shown that 85% of patients had one or more inappropriate prescriptions on admission and 74% on discharge. As a result of this previous audit, bespoke training on STOPP/START was introduced by the trust.

Of note, the audit did not account for observer bias from patients completing the questionnaires as part of Hawthorne Effect. Results show a clear inclination towards self-medicating, however majority of patients were frustrated at being unable to freely access their Insulin prior to meals, and being dependent on scheduled

medication ward rounds before receiving their Insulin dose. There is debate as to whether delayed insulin administration has an adverse effect on a patient’s health. All health-professionals that prescribe, handle or administer insulin must now complete a mandatory NHS Diabetes E-learning module on the safe use of Insulin. Further research would be required to prove its effectiveness and positive impact on patient outcomes. 1. Lamont T, Cousins D, Hillson R, Bischler A, Terblanche Selleck RAD001 M. Safer Administration of insulin: summary of a safety report

form the PF-02341066 price National Patient Safety Agency.?TBMJ 2010;341:c5269 M. Boyda, D. Jonesa, K. Solankia, S. Rakhejaa, C. Tonga, G. Tomlinsonb, K. O’Kellyc, R. Abeyratnec, T. Masudc aDivision for Social Research in Medicines and Health, The School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK, bClinical Quality, Risk & Safety Team, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, UK, cHealth Care of Older Persons Directorate, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, UK The STOPP/START criteria are a useful tool in identifying inappropriate prescribing or prescribing omissions in patients over 65. Retrospective analysis of patient notes was used to identify STOPP/START violations in patients Edoxaban discharged from the Health Care of Older Persons (HCOP) directorate. Secondary care clinicians reduce inappropriate prescribing between admission and discharge.

Prescribing in older patients is challenging due to factors such as multiple morbidities, polypharmacy and changes in pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profiles. Inappropriate prescribing can result in adverse drug reactions, unnecessary hospital admissions and poor outcomes for patients. In 2008, Gallagher et al. published two tools to assist prescribing for older patients: Screening Tool of Older Persons’; Prescriptions (STOPP) and Screening Tool to Alert to Right Treatment (START).1 These tools comprised 65 indicators to identify potentially inappropriate prescriptions and 22 prescribing indicators for potential prescribing omissions respectively. In a previous audit in the same hospital trust conducted in April-August 2012, 105 patients were audited and it was shown that 85% of patients had one or more inappropriate prescriptions on admission and 74% on discharge. As a result of this previous audit, bespoke training on STOPP/START was introduced by the trust.

01 vs.

antigen c, and P<0.001 vs. antigens a and b). Similarly, significant differences (P<0.001) were found between antigen c vs. antigens a and b. Haemophilus parasuis counts were significantly lower for all sera developed against any of the rTbpA fragment preparations, ranging from (4.5±1.3) × 103 CFU mL−1 for group (a) to (5.5±3.0) × 103 CFU mL−1 for group (b), compared either with group (e) (PBS) or (f) (without serum) (P<0.01 in both cases). No significant differences were found when comparing any of the groups (a) to (d) with each other (Fig. 7). Haemophilus parasuis Nagasaki strain cells (0.2–2.0 × 1.0–7.0 μm), grown in an iron-deficient medium and exposed to any of the sera developed, were covered with an this website irregular and discontinuous layer of gold particles (Fig. 8a). A

minor amount of gold particles was seen when this H. parasuis strain was grown in an iron-sufficient medium (Fig. 8b). Finally, these particles were absent on cells in which the first antibody was excluded (Fig. 8c). For access to these limited resources of iron, pathogenic bacteria from the family Pasteurellaceae can either synthesize siderophores (del Río et al., 2006) or utilize high-affinity iron uptake systems, such as Tbps (Litwin & Calderwood, 1993). The organization of the TonB region, involved in transferrin iron uptake and composed of tonB, exbB, exbD, tbpB and tbpA genes, has already been Adenosine described in H. parasuis (del Río et al., 2005), but the expression of the tbpA gene has not been Venetoclax clinical trial reported previously.

The TbpA forward primer designed in this study, along with the reverse primer tbpA33 reported previously (de la Puente Redondo et al., 2000), successfully allowed the amplification of the complete tbpA gene, unlike the forward primer designed by de la Puente Redondo et al. (2000), which was unable to amplify the first 21 nucleotides of the tbpA gene. As the amplification product of tbpA gene obtained in H. parasuis is different in size from the 2.8-kb fragment revealed in A. pleuropneumoniae and A. suis (de la Puente Redondo et al., 2000), the amplification of this gene could be a good candidate for an effective diagnostic tool for porcine respiratory infections caused for Pasteurellaceae. On the other hand, the molecular mass of the predicted, mature TbpA of A. suis was 104.3 kDa (Bahrami et al., 2003), while that of a complete rTbpA of A. pleuropneumoniae was 110 kDa (Kim & Lee, 2006). After selection of a 600-bp tbpA fragment from H. parasuis, purification and elution of rTbpA, there was clear evidence of the production of a 38.5 kDa protein on the SDS-PAGE gel, which represents about one-third of the estimated size for the complete TbpA of other Pasteurellaceae. In a previous study, an rTbpB from H. parasuis was generated (del Río et al.

, 1977; Rebuffat et al., 1995; Duval et al., 1997). Peptaibols have been shown to generally exhibit antimicrobial

activity against Gram-positive bacteria and fungi (Jen et al., 1987). Only two peptaibols, Peptaivirins A and B from Sepedonium spp., were reported to have inhibitory activity against TMV infection to tobacco (Yun et al., 2000; Yeo et al., 2002). Trichokonins, a group of peptaibols produced by Trichoderma pseudokoningii SMF2, were demonstrated to exhibit antimicrobial activity against a range of Gram-positive bacterial and fungal phytopathogens in vitro (Song et al., 2006). However, the antiviral activity of Trichokonins and the mechanism involved in plant resistance are still unknown. Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is one of the most common causes of plant virus diseases and causes a serious loss of crops worldwide. TMV is known to infect >150 types of plants, including

Selleckchem Bortezomib vegetables, flowers and weeds. Because of the high genetic variation of TMV, traditional chemical treatments have no stable effect to protect plants from virus infection. Moreover, the misuse of nonbiodegradable chemicals brings severe environmental pollution (Pfleger & Zeyen, 2008). Thus, it is important to study new biocontrol agents for plant DZNeP price viral disease. In this study, we tested the antiviral effect of Trichokonins against TMV infection to tobacco and analyzed the possible mechanism involved. Our results provided conclusive evidence that Trichokonins induced tobacco resistance against TMV infection through activation of multiple plant defense pathways. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum var. Samsun NN) seeds were sterilized by immersion in 70% ethanol

for 2 min followed by 2.6% clorox for 7 min and thoroughly rinsed in sterile water. Seeds were germinated on Murashige and Skoog medium (Murashige & Skoog, 1962). Seedlings were uprooted and transferred into pots containing sterilized vermiculite at a density of one plantlet per pot. Seedlings were grown in a growth chamber [a photoperiod of 16/8 h (light/dark) (1.87 W m−2), 75–80% relative humidity, 25±1 °C] and were fertilized once a week with liquid Murashige and Skoog medium. Experiments were performed with plants at the 8–10-leaf stage. Trichokonins were prepared from solid-state fermented T. pseudokoningii SMF2 using the methods described previously (Song et al., 2006). The purified Trichokonins were dissolved in methanol to yield a 10 mM stock Methamphetamine solution. Water (with 1% v/v Tween-80) was used for further dilution of Trichokonins in different experiments. When a tobacco plant was grown to the 8–10-leaf stage, 1 mL Trichokonins (50, 100 or 200 nM), or 1 mL ddH2O containing 1% (v/v) Tween-80 and 0.2% (v/v) methanol (control solution) was sprayed on the lower leaves (the fifth to seventh leaves from the top) of one plant. After 4 days, plants were inoculated with TMV (0.02 mg mL−1, 100 μL per leaf) by rubbing the untreated upper leaves (the second to fourth fully expanded leaves from the top) with carborundum (500 Mesh).

, 2007). In addition to the above-mentioned reporter systems, gene expression of C. albicans cells in infected organs can be directly measured by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). Sufficient fungal RNA can be extracted from infected organs to allow analysis of expression of

selected subsets of fungal genes (reviewed in Brown et al., 2007). These studies have focused mainly on virulence factors, such as secreted enzymes and adhesins, and have shown that these genes are expressed in specific niches during infection. The addition of an RNA amplification step, following extraction of RNA from fungal cells from infected kidneys, allows fungal gene expression changes during infection to be analysed by transcript profiling. In comparison with C. albicans cells selleck chemical grown in vitro, fungal cells from infected mouse kidneys demonstrated altered, mostly downregulated, expression of approximately one-fifth of the genome (Andes et al., 2005). These gene expression changes reflected a switch to a filamentous growth form Ku-0059436 supplier and growth in a glucose-poor environment. Emergence of fungal drug resistance in an antifungal-treated host has also been studied in mouse systemic infection models (Andes et al., 2006). In the mouse, ineffective antifungal dosing regimens

allowed the emergence of resistant isolates, where effective antifungal doses prevented this. In addition, mouse infection models have confirmed that C. albicans Chlormezanone strains with specific drug resistance mutations

are more resistant to antifungal therapy, with the greatest resistance seen in strains with multiple genomic mutations (Park et al., 2005; MacCallum et al., 2010). Mouse models have been instrumental in understanding host responses during the initiation and progression of systemic Candida infection, with the advantage of allowing manipulation of the host, either through use of neutralizing antibodies, immunosuppressive treatment or by creating knockout mice. Such host manipulations allow mimicking of susceptible hosts, for example patients depleted in B cells, T cells, macrophages or neutrophils or with specific gene mutations, and allows the effects of these manipulations on host responses or susceptibility to infection to be analysed. Modelling disseminated C. albicans infection by intravenous injection in normal mice demonstrated that fungal growth was controlled in the liver and spleen, while fungal burdens increased in the kidneys (MacCallum & Odds, 2005; Lionakis et al., 2010). In the kidneys, fungal burden increases were accompanied by increasing immune infiltrates (MacCallum et al., 2009a; Castillo et al., 2011). This did not occur in other organs. Analyses of cytokine and chemokine levels in infected organs elucidated obvious organ-specific responses, with high cytokine and chemokine levels in infected kidneys, but reduced responses in the spleen (Spellberg et al., 2003; MacCallum et al., 2009a).