In the lateral compartment, no significant differences in the location or magnitude of peak cartilage deformation were found between

the intact and posterior cruciate ligament-deficient knees.

Conclusions: The altered kinematics associated with posterior cruciate ligament deficiency resulted in a shift of the tibiofemoral contact location and an increase in cartilage deformation in the medial compartment beyond 75 degrees of knee flexion. The magnitude of the medial contact shift in the posterior cruciate ligament-deficient knee was on the same order as that of the anterior contact shift.”
“Primary aldosteronism (PA) is the most common cause of secondary hypertension, accounting for 10% of all hypertension. Far from being benign, hypertension due to PA is associated with high cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. However, PA is still underdiagnosed in general practice. Recent this website reports strongly recommend that identifying patients with PA is cost-beneficial based on improved

cardiovascular outcomes afforded by specific surgical and medical treatment. This review provides an update of PA including controversial aspects of diagnosis and treatment.”
“Patients with human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-B27 seropositivity have a genetic predisposition to form spondyloarthropathies, Alvespimycin especially ankylosing spondylitis. Other related inflammatory or autoimmune disorders include reactive arthritis, uveitis, psoriatic arthritis, and Crohn’s disease. Although juvenile recurrent parotitis is not uncommon, recurrent submandibular sialadenitis is rare in pediatric patients. Sialadenitis is typically caused by salivary stones, infection, or duct stricture. To our knowledge, there has not been report of HLA-B27 positivity and recurrent sialadenitis described previously. We describe a patient with HLA-B27 seropositivity and multiple episodes of left submandibular sialadenitis who underwent diagnostic

and therapeutic sialendoscopy. Previous treatment included antibiotics, sialogogues, warm compresses, and hydration before he underwent definitive sialendoscopy treatment at a tertiary care medical VX-765 manufacturer center. Salivary endoscopy showed salivary stasis and sludging within the left submandibular gland duct, with no salivary stones. Topical steroid was applied to the duct. At one year following his surgery, he has not had any recurrent episodes of sialadenitis. HLA-B27 seropositivity is associated with many inflammatory disorders; we report a case in which the patient had coexisting recurrent sialadenitis. In the pediatric population, sialadenitis is traditionally managed with antibiotics and supportive care, however our patient underwent salivary endoscopy.

A sciatic nerve-pinch injury is easy to produce but the reliability of this model for evaluating pain behavior has not been examined. The current study evaluated pain-related behavior and change in pain markers in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) of rats in a simple, sciatic nerve-pinch injury model. In the model, the sciatic nerve was pinched for 2 s using forceps (n = 20), but not injured in sham-operated animals (n = 20). Mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia

were measured every second day for 2 weeks using von Frey filaments and a Hargreaves device. Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), activating transcription factor-3 (ATF-3), phosphorylated p38 mitogen activated protein (Map) kinase (p-p38), and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappa B; p65) expression in L5 DRGs were examined at 4 and this website 7 days after surgery using https://www.selleckchem.com/products/netarsudil-ar-13324.html immunohistochemistry. The proportion of neurons immunoreactive for these markers was compared between the two groups. Mechanical (during 8 days) and thermal hyperalgesia (during 6 days) were found in the pinch group rats, but not in the sham-operated animals (p < 0.05); however, hyperalgesia was not significant from days 10 to 14. CGRP, ATF-3, p-p38, and NF-kappa B expression in L5 DRGs was upregulated in the nerve-injured rats compared with the sham-operated rats (p < 0.01). Our results indicate that a simple sciatic nerve pinch produced pain-related behavior. Upregulation of the pain-marker

expression in the nerve-injury model suggested it could be used as a model of pain. However, it was not considered as suitable for long-term studies.”
“Background: Right ventricular ejection fraction (RV-EF) has traditionally been used to measure and compare RV function serially over time, but may be a relatively insensitive marker of change in RV myocardial contractile function. We developed a cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) tagging-based technique with a view to rapid and reproducible measurement of RV long axis function and applied it in patients with congenital heart disease.

Methods: We studied 84 patients: 56 with repaired Tetralogy of Fallot (rTOF); 28 with atrial septal defect (ASD): 13 Selleckchem S3I-201 with and 15

without pulmonary hypertension (RV pressure > 40 mmHG by echocardiography). For comparison, 20 healthy controls were studied. CMR acquisitions included an anatomically defined four chamber cine followed by a cine gradient echo-planar sequence in the same plane with a labelling pre-pulse giving a tag line across the basal myocardium. RV tag displacement was measured with automated registration and tracking of the tag line together with standard measurement of RV-EF.

Results: Mean RV displacement was higher in the control (26 +/- 3 mm) than in rTOF (16 +/- 4 mm) and ASD with pulmonary hypertension (18 +/- 3 mm) groups, but lower than in the ASD group without (30 +/- 4 mm), P < 0.001. The technique was reproducible with inter-study bias +/- 95% limits of agreement of 0.7 +/- 2.7 mm.

In the labyrinth zone, MUN placental AQP1 was significantly decreased, whereas AQP8 and 9 expressions were significantly increased at E16 and E20. Dysregulation of AQPs’ expression prior to the occurrence of oligohydramnios may represent a compensatory mechanism under conditions of early MUN.”
“Myelolipomas

selleck chemicals are benign tumors, histologically consisting of an admixture of mature adipose tissue and normal hematopoietic elements. It is most commonly found in the adrenal glands. Extra-adrenal myelolipomas are rare. Due to the rarity of this entity, exposure to and awareness of the cytological characteristics are limited. We report a case of intra-abdominal extra-adrenal myelolipoma diagnosed by fine needle aspiration (FNA) in a 67-year-old female, and review of relevant English literature. Knowledge of the cytological features of myelolipoma will avoid mistaking

this benign tumor as malignant.”
“We report the intraoperative finding, at a transit-time flow measurement, of competitive flow between a venous and an arterial graft in a 72-year old woman who underwent uncomplicated coronary artery bypass grafting X 3. The blood flow in the left internal mammary artery (LIMA) improved only after temporary occlusion of the saphenous vein graft (SVG) anastomosed to the first diagonal (D1), demonstrating the presence of competitive flow from the SVG-D1 anastomosis into the LIMA-left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD) system. Interestingly the two target vessels suffered from separate critical lesions. The patient’s haemodynamics remained stable throughout and no further action was taken. Her recovery 3-Methyladenine clinical trial was uneventful and the patient was discharged home on postoperative day 6. This case raised questions about the cost benefit of grafting a diagonal target even

when it appeared to be disconnected from the LAD on a coronary angiogram.”
“Objective: Breast arterial calcifications (BACs) are common but underreported findings LGK-974 on mammography. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between BACs, metabolic syndrome (MS), and coronary heart disease (CHD) risk.

Research Design and Methods: This was a case-control study. A total of 101 women with BACs and 101 age-matched controls without BACs were included in the analysis. BACs were calculated using the mammography of both breasts, and then the total BACs were summed. MS was defined by using criteria from the American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (AHA/NHLBI). The 10-year estimated CHD relative risk (10-year CHD risk) was calculated based on the Framingham Scores. Metabolic characteristics were compared between the BAC positive group and the BAC negative group.

Results: Diabetes (P = 0.039) and MS (P = 0.043) were more frequently observed in the BAC positive group than in the BAC negative group. The only independent factor was MS (P = 0.04).

“
“We experimentally and numerically investigate the transmission of single cycle terahertz pulses through subwavelength slit apertures featuring

zero cutoff frequency and very low attenuation. Employing a polaritonic approach we demonstrate that wave forms transmitted through slit samples with slit widths as small as lambda/1000 can be visualized and analyze the applicability of this approach to terahertz near-field microscopy. Finite element simulations are used to quantitatively investigate resolution limitations due to imperfect experimental configurations. Our results show that resolutions on the scale of the slit width are possible; however, they demand Citarinostat in vivo an accurate control of the distance between the imaging aperture and the sample. This is because the presence of small gaps leads to around-the-bend waveguiding effects resulting in a significant reduction of

the attainable resolution.”
“In this study, an antioxidative peptide was obtained by hydrolyzation of mideodeok (Styela clava) flesh tissue with various proteases and purified through gel filtration chromatography and reverse phage-HPLC (RPHPLC), and then antioxidant activity was investigated using electron spin resonance (ESR) spectrometer. Among the enzymatic hydrolysates, the peptic hydrolysate exhibited the highest antioxidant activity, and a strong antioxidant peptide was purified from the hydrolysate. The peptide sequence, Leu-Trp-His-Thr-His Flavopiridol chemical structure (692.2 Da), was identified by quardruple time-of-flight electrospray ionization (QTOF ESI)-MS. This antioxidative peptide strongly scavenged peroxyl radical with the IC50 value of 39.4 mu M.”
“We developed a mutation-screening GS-4997 protocol for the ASS1 gene in order to guide clinical management of neonates with elevated citrulline detected during routine newborn screening. An exon-based amplification and sequencing method was designed and successfully applied to patients to identify disease-associated mutations. The sequencing-based method was applied to three patients

with mild or asymptomatic clinical courses. Identification of a homozygous mutation in these patients, c. 787G> A (p. Val263Met), led to the development of a tetra-primer ARMS-PCR method that successfully detected the mutation in DNA extracted from blood or from Guthrie card spots.”
“Purpose: To test the hypothesis that there is no significant variability in apparent diffusion coefficients (ADCs) at assessment of the short-and midterm reproducibility of ADC measurements in a healthy population.

Materials and Methods: Twenty healthy male volunteers were enrolled in this prospective institutional review board-approved study after they provided written informed consent. A 3.0-T magnetic resonance (MR) system was used to perform five axial diffusion-weighted (DW) abdominal acquisitions (session 1).

Results: Frequency of blood group ‘B’ was significantly higher in patients with severe malaria compared to the uncomplicated cases (P < 0.0001; OR = 4.09) and healthy controls (P < 0.0001; OR = 2.79). Irrespective of the level of clinical severity, blood group ‘B’ was significantly associated with cerebral malaria (P < 0.0001; OR = 5.95), multi-organ dysfunction (P < 0.0001; OR = 4.81) and non-cerebral severe malaria patients (P = 0.001; OR = 3.02) compared to the uncomplicated category. Prevalence of ‘O’ group in uncomplicated malaria (P < 0.0001; OR = 2.81)

and healthy controls (P = 0.0003; OR = 2.16) was significantly high compared to severe malaria. Meta-analysis of previous studies, including the current one, highlighted the MAPK Inhibitor Library cost protective nature of blood group ‘O’ to severe Selleck Mdivi1 malaria (P = 0.01). On the other hand, carriers of blood group ‘A’ (P = 0.04) and ‘AB’ (P = 0.04) were susceptible to malaria severity.

Conclusions: Results of the current study indicate that blood group ‘O’ is associated with reduced and ‘B’ blood group with increased risk of development of severe malaria in Odisha, India. Meta-analysis also supports the protective nature of blood group ‘O’ from severe falciparum infection.”
“Rubber toughened poly(lactic acid) (PLA) was prepared by blending with natural rubber (NR)-based polymers. The blends contained 10 wt % of rubber and melt blended with a twin screw extruder. Enhancement

of impact strength Transmembrane Transporters inhibitor of PLA was primarily concernced. This study was focused on the effect of rubber polarity, rubber viscosity and molecular weight on mechanical properties of the blends. Three types of rubbers were used: NR, epoxidized natural

rubber (ENR25 and ENR50), and natural rubber grafted with poly(methyl methacrylate) (NR-g-PMMA). Effect of viscosity and molecular weight of NR, rubber mastication with a two-roll mill was investigated. It was found that all blends showed higher impact strength than PLA and NR became the best toughening agent. Viscosity and molecular weight of NR decreased with increasing number of mastication. Impact strength of PLA/NR blends increased after applying NR mastication due to appropriate particle size. DMTA and DSC characterization were determined as well. (c) 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011″
“A maxillary sinus mucocele is an infrequent but benign lesion that develops from the obstruction of a seromucous glandular duct of the maxillary sinus mucosa. This clinical entity is generally asymptomatic and self-limited. Mucoceles are described as rounded dome-shaped soft tissue masses frequently located on the floor of the maxillary sinus. In this paper, we present a case of a slightly radiopaque well defined shadow arising from the left maxillary sinus floor that produced the root resorption of the upper second left molar. After the surgical removal of the lesion through a Caldwell-Luc approach, histologic study confirmed the initial diagnosis of mucocele.

The mutant plants exhibited moderate reduction in seedling height and produced aberrant pollen grains and

short siliques with aborted embryos, suggesting that CalS7 also plays a role in plant growth and reproduction.”
“Background: Measures of regional adiposity have been proposed as alternatives to the measurement of body mass index (BMI) for identifying persons at risk of future disease.

Objective: The objective was to compare the magnitudes of association of BMI and alternative measurements of adiposity with coronary 4EGI-1 order heart disease, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease risk factors and all-cause mortality.

Design: Data from 4 cohorts of adults [3937 women from the British Women's Heart and Health Study (BWHHS); 2367 and 1950 men from phases 1 and 3, respectively, of the Caerphilly Prospective Study (CaPS); 403 men and women from the Boyd Orr Study; and 789 men and women from the Maidstone-Dewsbury Study] were analyzed.

Results: The magnitudes of associations of BMI with incident coronary

heart disease and cardiovascular disease risk factors find more were similar to those with measurements of central adiposity [waist circumference (WC), waist-hip ratio (WHR), or waist-height ratio (WHtR)] and more direct measurements of fat mass (bioimpedance/skinfold thickness). In CaPS (men only), there was no strong evidence of differences in the strengths of association with incident diabetes between BMI, WC, WHR, and WHtR (P for heterogeneity > 0.49 for all). In the BWHHS (women only), there was statistical evidence that WC [hazard ratio Selleck MS 275 (HR): 2.35; 95% CI: 2.03, 2.73] and WHtR (HR: 2.29; 95% CI: 1.98, 2.66) were more strongly associated with diabetes than with BMI (HR: 1.80; 95% CI: 1.59, 2.04) (P for heterogeneity < 0.02 for both). Central adiposity measurements were positively associated with all-cause mortality, as was BMI, but only when those with a BMI (in kg/m(2)) < 22.5 were removed

from the analyses.

Conclusion: No strong evidence supports replacing BMI in clinical or public health practice with other adiposity measures. Am J Clin Nutr 2010;91:547-56.”
“The facile preparation of nonspherical raspberry-like poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) particles by seeded dispersion polymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) onmicron-sized PMMA seed particles was described. Various polymerization parameters influencing the particle morphology, as well as the polymerization kinetic and morphological stability, were investigated in detail. It was found that the following polymerization conditions were necessary to prepare this kind of nonspherical particles: a relatively low temperature, an appropriate ratio of seed/MMA, an initiator with a relatively low decomposition rate, and a relatively low initiator concentration. These particles showed very good morphological stability at room temperature, but they changed to the spherical ones when heat treated at 60 degrees C in methanol solution of MMA.

Therefore, A. heterophyllus seed provides future opportunities in nanomedicine by tagging nanoparticles with jacalin. (c) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.”
“Two new dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans, schinegllignans A and B (1 and 2), together with 11 find more known (3 13) were isolated from the fruit of Schisandra neglecta. Their structures and stereochemistries were elucidated by spectroscopic methods, including 1D, 2D NMR, and HR-ESI-MS techniques. Compounds 1 and 2 were evaluated for their anti-HIV activities, and they showed moderate anti-HIV-1 activities with therapeutic index values of 18.5 and 24.6.”
“Objective:

Determine whether more conservative management for surgical salvage after failed radiation leads to better facial nerve outcomes.

Study Design: “”Retrospective” learn more review using prospectively planned database.

Setting: Private practice, tertiary neurotology/neurosurgery referral center.

Patients: A series of 73 patients with vestibular schwannoma, who underwent primary radiosurgery with no other intervention and then surgical salvage tumor removal using the translabyrinthine approach.

Intervention(s): Translabyrinthine craniotomy for vestibular schwannoma

salvage surgery after failed radiation, with either gross total or partial tumor removal.

Main OutcomeMeasures: Long-term (1 yr) House-Brackmann (H-B) facial nerve grade and change in facial nerve grade from before to after surgery.

Results: Of Birinapant purchase the 73 patients, 79.5% had gross total removal, 5.5% had planned partial resection (subtotal or near total), and 15.1% had intraoperatively

elected partial removal with most of these being near total removal. At 1 year of follow-up, good facial nerve function (H-B I/II) was found in 50% of patients with gross total removal and 85.7% of those with partial removal (p <= 0.03). The H-B grade was maintained postoperatively in 45.8% and 78.6% of the 2 groups, respectively (p <= 0.037), with 21.7% of the total removal group having unsatisfactory outcomes (H-B V or VI) compared with 7.1% of patients with partial removal. To date, no patient has required additional treatment.

Conclusion: Failed radiosurgery is an increasing indication for salvage surgery in patients with posterior fossa tumors. A conservative approach with a willingness to perform partial and near-total tumor removals leads to better facial nerve outcomes with no current evidence of treatment compromise.”
“The observed increased risks of noncardia stomach cancer among foreign-born second-generation immigrants compared to the Swedes suggest that these immigrants were infected by Helicobacter pylori before immigration.”
“The microencapsulation of gallic acid (GA) with chitosan (C), beta-cyclodextrin (beta-CDS) or xanthan (X) was prepared by the lyophilization method. The encapsulation was verified by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, UV-visible spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis.

Here we investigated the combined effects of Mn(II) on the DNA damage induced

by dopamine and either Fe(III) or Cu(II). Mn(II) enhanced the formation of 7,8-dihydro-8-oxo-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG) induced by dopamine and Fe(III)/Cu(II), whereas Mn(II) did not induce 8-oxodG formation in the absence of Fe(III)/Cu(II). Mn(II) accelerated hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) production in the dopamine-Fe(III)/Cu(II) system. Furthermore, Mn(II) decreased superoxide anion radicals (O(2)(center dot-)) generated in the xanthine-xanthine oxidase system. These results indicate that Mn(II)mediated enhancement of DNA damage is caused by facilitated conversion of O(2)(center dot-) to H(2)O(2). In addition, Mn(II) accelerated ICG-001 order the formation of aminochrome, an oxidized dopamine product, in the presence of Cu(II). This reaction may have involved Mn(III) accompanied by H(2)O(2) production from O(2)(center dot-), suggesting a mechanism for Mn-induced oxidative stress on dopaminergic neurons through the combined actions of Mn, Fe, Cu, and dopamine.”
“Purpose:

To describe changes in HRQoL of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) patient and illustrate impact of malnutrition and Type II diabetes on relapse of PTB.

Case: A Chinese male patient with complaints of productive cough, and GSK1838705A mouse loss of weight and appetite was registered; sputum smear confirmed that patient had PTB. Diagnosis was also supported by routine investigations. Patient had past history of PTB and Type II diabetes mellitus. For management of secondary tuberculosis, he was prescribed WHO recommended therapy. Elevated HbA1c levels and history of

drop-off serum albumin concentration at the start of treatment demonstrated inappropriate glycaemic control and malnutrition over the past months. SF-36v2 was used to estimate HRQoL scores at start, after two months and at the end of TB therapy. Although patient’s perception of mental and physical health improved with progress of treatment, vitality (VT), social functioning (SF) and ACY-738 in vitro role emotion (RE) scores were still lower than Malaysian norms. Patient was declared ‘cured’ but state of ‘health’ as defined by WHO was not achieved.

Conclusion: Relapse of PTB might be a consequence of inappropriate glycaemic control and malnutrition. This case report demonstrates the need for more comprehensive efforts at TB programs to improve HRQoL of TB patients.”
“Extinction bursts are characterized by a temporary increase in responding when drug access is withheld from rats trained to self-administer drugs of abuse. Thus far, one study has examined extinction bursts for nicotine self-administration using a 23-h access paradigm [1]. Here we examined extinction bursts using previously published and unpublished data in which rats were trained to self-administer nicotine (0.

4 nm, is an inert, water-soluble protein that is midway along the size range of endogenous xylem sap proteins. Solutions of ovalbumin conjugated to a fluorescent marker and supplied to transpiring shoot explants of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) and olive (Olea europaea L.) were shown by confocal laser scanning

microscopy to accumulate specifically at wall-based pit membranes that connect neighbouring xylem conduits. In addition, pressure-induced perfusion of micro-filtered ovalbumin solutions, at concentrations similar to those of endogenous xylem sap proteins, through the xylem of tobacco stem or olive twig segments resulted in the retention of c. 40% of the ovalbumin and reductions in the axial hydraulic selleck products conductance of the Oligomycin A in vitro xylem. Smaller molecules such as Texas Red 3000 (MW 3 kDa) and Alexafluor 488-cadaverin conjugates (MW 0.64 kDa) did not show similar characteristics. The partial reduction in xylem hydraulic conductance appeared to be related to the accumulation of ovalbumin at xylem pit membranes and the consequent fouling of trans-membrane water-conducting pores with smaller diameters than those of the ovalbumin molecules. Potential implications of these novel findings for whole-plant water relations are considered.”
“Background:

We examined whether registered and unregistered

donors’ perceptions about transplant recipients’ previous behavior (e.g., substance use) and responsibility for illness differed based on their deceased organ donor registration decisions.

Methods:

Students and community members from Queensland, Australia, were surveyed about their perceptions of transplant recipients.

Results:

Respondents (n = 465) were grouped based on their organ donor registration status

to determine whether their perceptions about transplant recipients differed. Compared to registered respondents, a higher proportion of unregistered respondents held more negative and less favorable perceptions of recipients. Multivariate analysis of variance confirmed statistically that unregistered respondents evaluated recipients more negatively R406 cell line than registered respondents, F(6, 449) = 5.33, p < 0.001. Unregistered respondents were more likely to view recipients as a smoker, substance user, or alcohol dependent and as undeserving of a transplant, blameworthy, and responsible for their illness.

Conclusion:

Potential donors’ perceptions of transplant recipients’ behavior and responsibility for illness differ according to their registration status. Future interventions should challenge negative perceptions about recipients’ deservingness and responsibility and promote the perspective that people from all walks of life need transplants in the aim of ultimately encouraging an increase in donor registration.

Bleeding occurred in 1.96% (n = 23) of cases, mainly gastrointestinal, urinary tract, and vitreous body bleeding. In short-term (up to CHIR99021 2 weeks) treatment, bleeding and VTE were more frequent than in long-term treatment. Results from this study suggest that prolonged enoxaparin thromboprophylaxis in neurological rehabilitation is safe and effective.”
“The present study investigated the effects of hydrocortisone on the pharmacokinetics of loratadine in rats after intravenous and

oral administration. A single dose of loratadine was administered either orally (4 mg/kg) or intravenously (1 mg/kg) with or without oral hydrocortisone (0.3 or 1.0 mg/kg). Compared to the control group (without hydrocortisone), after oral administration of loratadine, the area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC) was significantly increased by 30.2-81.7% in the presence of hydrocortisone (p<0.05). selleck chemical The peak plasma concentration (C(max)) was significantly increased by 68.4% in the presence of 1.0 mg/kg hydrocortisone

after oral administration of loratadine (p<0.05). Hydrocortisone (1.0 mg/kg) significantly increased the terminal plasma half-life (t(1/2)) of loratadine by 20.8% (p<0.05). Consequently, the relative bioavailability of loratadine was increased by 1.30- to 1.82-fold. In contrast, oral hydrocortisone had no effects on any pharmacokinetic parameters of loratadine given intravenously. XMU-MP-1 This suggests that hydrocortisone may improve the oral bioavailability of loratadine by reducing first-pass metabolism of loratadine, most likely mediated by P-gp and/or CYP3A4 in the intestine and/or liver. In conclusion,

hydrocortisone significantly enhanced the bioavailability of orally administered loratadine in rats, which may have been due to inhibition of both CYP 3A4-mediated metabolism and P-gp in the intestine and/or liver by the presence of hydrocortisone.”
“The underlying mechanisms of polarization sensitivity (PS) have long remained elusive. For rhabdomeric photoreceptors, questions remain over the high levels of PS measured experimentally. In ciliary photoreceptors, and specifically cones, little direct evidence supports any type of mechanism. In order to promote a greater interest in these fundamental aspects of polarization vision, we examined a varied collection of studies linking membrane biochemistry, protein-protein interactions, molecular ordering and membrane phase behaviour. While initially these studies may seem unrelated to polarization vision, a common narrative emerges. A surprising amount of evidence exists demonstrating the importance of protein-protein interactions in both rhabdomeric and ciliary photoreceptors, indicating the possible long-range ordering of the opsin protein for increased PS.